Current status of mycotoxins and their control in the MENA region

The issue of mycotoxin contamination in food and feed is a pressing concern throughout the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, with significant implications for public health, food safety, and agricultural productivity (Ben Hassouna et al., 2022).

The literature on this topic reveals a complex interplay of factors influencing:

• ⇰ The occurrence of mycotoxins
• ⇰ The effectiveness of management strategies across diverse contexts

Globally, approximately 25 % of the annual harvest is affected by mycotoxins, resulting in substantial economic losses, particularly in developing regions (Alshannaq y Yu, 2017).

Health and economic implications of MYCOTOXIN CONTAMINATION

The serious implications of mycotoxins— particularly aflatoxins—for health and trade in Africa have been highlighted, emphasizing the need for comprehensive management strategies from field to fork (Ortiz et al., 2008).

Moreover, the health consequences of mycotoxin exposure have been explored in the African context, where climatic conditions and agricultural practices contribute to widespread contamination (Omotayo et al., 2019).

The dairy industry is also notably affected by mycotoxin contamination, as detailed by Kemboi et al. (2021), who emphasize the risks posed to both animal health and human consumers through contaminated dairy products.

Environmental conditions and prevalent mycotoxins in NORTH AFRICA

Mediterranean countries such as Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia are characterized by high temperatures and high relative humidity, particularly in coastal regions, which provide favorable conditions for fungal growth and toxinogenesis (Aloui et al., 2023).

In North African countries, various studies have reported the presence of mycotoxins in raw milk and cereals.

⇰ Aflatoxins (AFs), aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisin B1 (FB1), and zearalenone (ZEN) are the most frequently detected, partly due to climate change in the region (Jalilzadeh-Amin et al., 2023).

The significant health risks posed by mycotoxins—particularly aflatoxins, which are linked to severe outcomes such as liver cancer and acute toxicosis—have been well documented (Omotayo et al., 2019).

A meta-analysis on the prevalence of mycotoxins in dairy products in Middle Eastern countries revealed 193 studies encompassing 297,530 dairy product samples.

The results showed that AFM1 contaminated 87 % of the samples.

• Iran reported the highest contamination levels, whereas the UAE had the lowest.
• The prevalence rates of AFM1 in dairy products were: milk (87 %), yogurt (68.9 %), cheese (63.6 %), kashk (62.9 %), doogh (55.6 %), and ice cream (54 %).
• Regarding milk types, the prevalence of AFM1 was 99.5 % in pasteurized milk, 91.3 % in ultra-high-temperature (UHT) milk, 73 % in raw milk, and 51 % in traditional milk.

(Arghavan et al., 2025)

Country-specific findings in the MENA REGION

EGYPT – Aflatoxins in cereals, juices, and animal products

In Egypt, the literature on mycotoxins presents a critical examination of their prevalence and the associated public health risks, particularly in the context of food safety.

Over the past decade, extensive work has been conducted on mycotoxins and their risk factors in cereal grains (El-Tahan et al., 2000; Gab-Allah et al., 2023).

One investigation highlighted the alarming presence of aflatoxins in sugarcane and its juice, emphasizing the need for further research to assess mycotoxin exposure across various Egyptian cities (Abdallah et al., 2016).

This foundational work sets the stage for understanding the broader implications of mycotoxin contamination in the Egyptian food supply.

Subsequent contributions (El-Dawy et al., 2024; Gherbawy et al., 2021) a comprehensive overview of mycotoxin contamination in grains, which are affected annually to a significant extent.

These statistics underscore the considerable agricultural losses and health risks posed by mycotoxins, particularly in developing nations like Egypt, where food processing challenges exacerbate the problem.

The focus on the carry-over effects of mycotoxins into animal-derived products further links contamination to broader food safety concerns.

Other findings have addressed the contamination of beef and processed meat products, revealing serious health threats from aflatoxins and ochratoxins (Abd-Elghany y Sallam, 2015; Algammal et al., 2021).

This research emphasizes the importance of stringent food safety protocols in Egypt, as improper handling and storage practices significantly contribute to the prevalence of mycotoxins in meat products.

Dairy products have received extensive attention regarding the presence of mycotoxins.

A comprehensive meta-analysis on the prevalence of aflatoxin M1 in dairy products in selected Middle Eastern countries indicated that most dairy products are contaminated with mycotoxins (Arghavan et al., 2025).

Due to their economic and public health importance, several studies have explored new approaches for the control of mycotoxins (Alghuthaymi et al., 2021; Basiouni et al., 2023; Elwan et al., 2021; Hassan et al., 2023; Imbabi et al., 2024).

MOROCCO – High incidence in couscous, medicinal plants, and nuts

In Morocco, research conducted by Zinedine et al. (2017) found that 98 % of couscous samples were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin.

⇰ Enniatin B (ENNB), enniatin B1 (ENNB1), enniatin A1 (ENNA1), and zearalenone (ZEN) showed the highest incidence rates among the contaminated samples.

Mycotoxins have also been detected in aromatic and medicinal plants (El Jai et al., 2021).

Moreover, their presence has been confirmed in the breast milk of Moroccan mothers, supporting the hypothesis of widespread contamination of food and medicinal plants (Cherkani-Hassani et al., 2020).

A recent study (Mannani et al., 2023) reported that:

13.8 % of samples were contaminated with aflatoxins (AF), with incidence rates of 23.3 %, 23.3 %, 20 %, 13.8 %, and 3.3 % in raisins, figs, nuts, peanuts, and pistachios, respectively.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) was detected in 17.1 % of samples, with incidences of 3.3 %, 3.3 %, 30 %, 30 %, and 53.3 % in walnuts, pistachios, peanuts, raisins, and figs, respectively.

The co-occurrence of OTA and AF was observed in 4.7 % of all samples.

ALGERIA – Mycotoxin co-occurrence and regional variability

In Algeria Belasli et al. (2023) highlighted the incidence of mycotoxins in food products, pointing to challenges related to the lack of regulatory frameworks and insufficient research on exposure levels.

Ben Hassouna et al. (2022) reported that aflatoxins (AFs), aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisin B1 (FB1), and zearalenone (ZEN) are the most frequently detected mycotoxins in MENA countries, primarily due to climate change in the region.

Aloui et al. (2023) found aflatoxins in 26.2 % of nut samples, 38.7 % of dried fruit samples (including dried figs, dates, and bradj pastries), and 47.9 % of cereal-based products, with mean concentrations ranging from 0.03 to 0.49 μg/kg. OTA was present in 16.9 % of cereal-based samples, with an average concentration of 0.15 μg/kg, but it was not detected in nuts or dried fruits. The incidence of deoxynivalenol (DON) in cereal-based products averaged 85.9 %, with mean concentrations ranging from 90 to 123 μg/kg.

More recently, Khouni et al. (2025) reported that mycotoxin contamination increased from 37.6 % in the 2020 harvest to 55.2 % in 2021.

They noted that the most frequently observed mycotoxin co-occurrence involved enniatin A1, enniatin B, and enniatin B1 (ranging from 0.5 to 126 μg/kg), along with DON (1307 μg/kg).

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), at concentrations between 0.4 and 2.6 μg/kg, was detected in only one sample collected from the continental region.

TUNESIA – Contamination in wheat and aromatic herbs

In Tunisia, the examination of aromatic herbs revealed the presence of several mycotoxins, including AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, T-2, and HT-2 (Potori et al., 2020).

Aloui et al. (2023) reported the detection of 22 mycotoxins in 136 samples of durum wheat collected during the 2020 and 2021 harvests.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and/or enniatins were predominant. Specifically, enniatin A1, enniatin B, and enniatin B1 were detected in wheat samples collected directly from the field.

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: Feed contamination and food chain risks

Kemboi et al. (2020) focus on the dairy industry in Sub-Saharan Africa, detailing how mycotoxins in animal feed not only threaten animal health but also pose risks to human consumers through contaminated dairy products.

⇰ Their research underscores the need for stringent monitoring and control measures in feed production to protect both animal and human health, particularly considering the high prevalence of aflatoxins in dairy feeds.

Imade et al. (2021) contributed to this discourse by addressing the specific context of Nigeria, advocating for increased awareness and the implementation of legislative measures to address mycotoxin contamination in food and feed.

⇰ This concern is echoed by Nji et al. (2022), who identify various factors contributing to elevated mycotoxin levels in African foods, including climate change and regulatory inadequacies.

Mycotoxin control strategies in the MENA REGION

The control of mycotoxins in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region presents a significant public health challenge, as evidenced by a growing body of literature.

Faour-Klingbeil et al. (2019) provided a critical analysis of the national prevention and control systems in place across MENA states, assessing their compliance with the FAO/WHO National Food Control System guidelines.

Notably, the authors highlighted the progress made by nations such as Oman, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait in enhancing their national food control systems.

However, in Iran, mycotoxin contamination in food remains a significant concern (Aghebatbinyeganeh y Abdallah, 2024).

Innovative approaches to MYCOTOXIN MITIGATION

Regarding mitigation strategies, although traditional anti-mycotoxin agents are still used in MENA countries, various new approaches for mycotoxin control have been explored.

They include:

• A focus on prevention rather than remediation.
• The application of good agricultural practices.
• The development of innovative detoxification technologies.

(Abou Dib et al., 2022)

• Ndiaye et al. (2022) emphasized biological control methods as sustainable solutions for detoxification, reinforcing the need for continued research into effective strategies that also consider public health implications.
• The use of nanosilica and bentonite as mycotoxin adsorbents in broiler chickens has also been studied, with nanosilica at 0.20 % proving to be the most effective (Ghazalah et al., 2021).
• In addition, other biological strategies for crop protection and mycotoxin mitigation have been tested (Hamad et al., 2022; Sehim et al., 2023).

CONCLUSION: towards integrated mycotoxin management in the MENA REGION

In conclusion, the literature highlights a pressing need for integrated and region-specific approaches to address the challenges posed by mycotoxins in the MENA region.

This includes:

• Improving detection and monitoring systems
• Strengthening regulatory frameworks
• Promoting the implementation of comprehensive mitigation strategies across the food and feed chains

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