Addressing the gaps in mycotoxin management
Challenges and strategies for South America's poultry industry

The poultry industry in South America faces a significant challenge from mycotoxins, which are harmful secondary metabolites produced by molds, that compromise poultry health, productivity, and economic stability.

The region’s diverse climatic conditions, exacerbated by climate change, promote the prevalence of key mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, trichothecenes, among others, which are detrimental to poultry and public health.

The lack of harmonized standards, inadequate laboratory infrastructure, and limited farmer awareness compound these issues, particularly affecting smallholders who bear disproportionate economic burdens.

Strategies such as the use of advanced mycotoxin adsorbents, including clinoptilolite-based products and biocontrol agents such as Bacillus species, show promise in reducing mycotoxin toxicity and safeguarding poultry health.

THE THREAT OF MYCOTOXINS TO THE SOUTH AMERICAN POULTRY SECTOR

South America (SA) is the home to some of the world’s largest poultry producers, faces a persistent challenge: managing the risks posed by mycotoxins¹.

This region spans an impressive area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 square miles).

Reflecting its vast size, the continent stretches from a wide equatorial region in the north to a slender sub-Arctic zone in the south.

The climate across SA is notably diverse, ranging from tropical and temperate to arid and frigid conditions².

Mycotoxins lead to substantial economic losses due to their effects on:

• ⇰ Human and animal health
• ⇰ Animal well-being
• ⇰ Productivity
• ⇰ Local and global trade³

They occur in favorable environments in most raw materials worldwide.

More than 700 types of mycotoxins have been identified to date mycotoxins have been identified to date, the most important being aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), fumonisin B1 (FB1), deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN) as well as T-2 toxin, because of their impact on poultry productivity and health⁴ (Figure 1)⁵.

These toxic compounds are chemically very stable, resistant to temperature, storage, and processing conditions.

⇰ They originate from filamentous fungi called molds, such as Fusarium sp, Aspergillus sp, Penicillium sp, and they are not essential for their growth⁷.

Despite the critical nature of this issue, regulatory frameworks for controlling mycotoxin levels in poultry feed are inconsistent across the region.

This lack of uniformity in safety standards creates uncertainty for producers and hinders the development of robust mitigation strategies.

CONTAMINATION OF MYCOTOXINS IN THE REGION OF SA

Table 1 shows the prevalence of different mycotoxins in South America.

Mycotoxin contamination poses a significant challenge in SA, affecting staple crops such as corn, wheat, oats, and rye.

The region’s diverse climates, ranging from tropical to temperate, create favorable conditions for the growth of mycotoxin-producing fungi like Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium species.

Una revisión de estudios de 2018 a 2023 destaca la prevalencia de micotoxinas tradicionales, incluidas aflatoxinas, OTA, fumonisinas, DON y ZEN, con ocurrencias que varían según la región y las condiciones climáticas¹⁰.

Emerging and masked mycotoxins have been studied primarily in Argentina and Brazil, where some studies have shown high occurrences^11,12.

⇰ This underscores the need for enhanced food safety measures and surveillance systems to mitigate mycotoxin risks in SA LATAM countries.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH VIGILANCE AND CONTROL OF MYCOTOXINS

The vigilance and control of mycotoxins in SA face numerous challenges, reflecting the region’s economic, climatic, and infrastructural diversity.

Regulations 

One significant issue is the lack of standardized regulations across countries.

While some nations like Brazil and Argentina have developed frameworks for monitoring mycotoxins, other countries such as Colombia lag behind, creating gaps in regional consistency.

⇰ This disparity complicates efforts to establish effective cross-border trade agreements and maintain food safety.

Sampling

Sampling plays a critical role in the vigilance and control of mycotoxins, ensuring the safety and quality of food and feed across supply chains^13,14.

Effective sampling methods are the foundation for:

• Detecting contamination levels
• Assessing compliance with safety standards
• Preventing the circulation of contaminated products in both domestic and international markets¹⁵

Given the uneven distribution of mycotoxins within batches of agricultural products, reliable sampling plans are essential to accurately reflect contamination levels¹⁴.

Without robust sampling strategies, even the most advanced analytical methods can yield misleading results, undermining the entire risk management process¹⁶.

Laboratory infrastructure

Laboratory infrastructure is another critical barrier.

Advanced equipment necessary for mycotoxin testing, such as HPLC or ELISA kits, is costly and often unavailable in rural or underfunded areas^16,17.

As a result, farmers and small producers struggle to assess contamination levels in their crops, leading to undetected health risks and economic losses.

Limited access to accredited labs further delays testing and reduces the capacity for timely interventions.

Education and awareness 

Education and awareness are also insufficient¹⁸. Many farmers, especially smallholders, lack knowledge about:

• ⇰ Proper crop storage
  
• ⇰ Drying techniques
  
• ⇰ Other preventative measures to overcome fungal growth

Traditional practices, combined with humid climates and poor post-harvest handling, exacerbate the risk of contamination¹⁹. Additionally, inadequate government initiatives to disseminate information on mycotoxin management leave vulnerable populations at greater risk.

Enforcement of existing regulations presents its own challenges.

Even in countries with established standards, limited funding and staffing prevent regulatory agencies from conducting thorough inspections or implementing penalties for non-compliance. Corruption and bureaucratic inefficiencies can further weaken these efforts.

Climate change

Climate change is increasingly influencing mycotoxin occurrences in SA by altering the environmental conditions that promote fungal growth²⁰.

Aflatoxin contamination, for instance, becomes more prevalent during droughts, as high temperatures and low rainfall create stress conditions for crops, making them more vulnerable to infection by aflatoxin-producing fungi²¹.

Conversely, warm and wet climates foster the growth of Fusarium species, which produce deoxynivalenol (DON) and other harmful toxins.

⇰ These fungi thrive in high humidity, particularly in crops such as wheat during flowering and maize during silking²².

In SA, where agricultural regions already contend with varied climatic conditions, the intensification of extreme weather events due to climate change, such as prolonged droughts or excessive rainfall, heightens the risk of mycotoxin outbreaks.

This dual threat not only impacts crop yields but also compromises food and feed safety, posing significant challenges for farmers and food supply chains in the region.

Finally, the economic burden of mycotoxin control disproportionately affects small producers who lack resources to invest in modern farming practices, better storage facilities, or regular testing.

This inequality perpetuates cycles of poverty and food insecurity in rural areas, while wealthier exporters face stricter scrutiny in international markets.

EFFECTS OF MYCOTOXINS ON POULTRY HEALTH AND PERFORMANCE

Mycotoxins significantly affect poultry health and productivity, primarily through their impact on the gastrointestinal tract, immune system, and overall metabolism²³.

Aflatoxins, for instance, are known to, inhibit protein synthesis, leading to:

• ⇰ Decreased weight gain
• ⇰ Poor feed conversion rates
• ⇰ Reduced egg production²⁴

These effects often manifest through liver damage, evident as pale, enlarged livers during necropsy.

Chronic exposure to mycotoxins like aflatoxins and ochratoxins also weakens the birds’ immune systems, resulting in increased susceptibility to infections and higher mortality rates²⁵.

Subclinical doses of mycotoxins, while not immediately evident, can still compromise gut health by disrupting nutrient absorption and damaging the intestinal barrier, further impairing the birds’ ability to thrive²⁶.

The immune system is particularly vulnerable to mycotoxin exposure, as toxins like aflatoxins and trichothecenes suppress lymphocyte proliferation and antibody production.

⇰ This leads to poor vaccine responses and higher incidences of diseases such as Newcastle and infectious bursal disease²⁷.

Additionally, toxins such as fumonisins and DON contribute to mucosal damage, increasing intestinal permeability and predisposing birds to gastrointestinal infections, including coccidiosis as well as necrotic enteritis^23,28.

These combined impacts not only reduce flock productivity but also impose significant economic losses on poultry producers, emphasizing the critical need for vigilant monitoring and management of mycotoxin contamination in poultry feed.

STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE MYCOTOXIN RISK MANAGEMENT IN THE POULTRY INDUSTRY IN SA

Effective mycotoxin risk management in the poultry industry in SA requires a strategic combination of preventative and mitigative measures based on the most frequent mycotoxins.

Studies such as those on the novel multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent (MYCORAID) and inorganic adsorbents highlight their utility in reducing the adverse effects of mycotoxins like aflatoxins, fumonisins, and ochratoxins^25,29.

MYCORAID, which incorporates specially selected minerals, probiotics (e.g., Bacillus strains), plant extracts, and yeast cell walls, has been shown to:

• Improve broiler and layer feed conversion ratios
• Enhance stabilize gut
• Reduce toxin residue in tissues

Similarly, inorganic adsorbents based on clinoptilolite, demonstrated efficacy in improving growth parameters and reducing histopathological damage in poultry exposed to mycotoxin-contaminated diets.

Preventative strategies include rigorous feed quality controls, such as testing and monitoring for contamination at production and storage stages.

Climate conditions in South America exacerbate mycotoxin risks, necessitating the use of adsorbents like clinoptilolite and other detoxifying agents to bind toxins and prevent absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.

Research has shown that these interventions:

• Mitigate the immediate toxic effects
• Help in maintaining optimal immune function and minimizing economic losses associated with reduced poultry productivity³⁰

To achieve sustainable mycotoxin management, an integrated approach is recommended. This includes adopting good agricultural practices (GAP) to minimize fungal contamination pre-harvest, employing biological controls like Bacillus subtilis for toxin bioremediation, and combining them with chemical adsorbents for immediate remediation.

Leveraging local research, such as findings from trials conducted on adsorbents, provides practical insights into the specific challenges of South America’s poultry industry.

Collaboration among feed producers, farmers, and regulators is key to refining these strategies and ensuring safe, toxin-free poultry production.

MYCORAID: AN ADVANCED SOLUTION FOR MYCOTOXIN RISK MANAGEMENT IN POULTRY

MYCORAID represents a breakthrough in mycotoxin management, offering a multilayered defense against a broad spectrum of bio-toxins, including mycotoxins, endotoxins, and algal toxins.

Its innovative formula integrates specially selected minerals, microbial strains, herbal extracts, and yeast cell walls, providing comprehensive protection for poultry wellbeing and productivity.

The product’s primary mechanisms of action include adsorption, biotransformation, hepatoprotection, and immunomodulation, tailored to meet the unique challenges of mycotoxin contamination in SA.

The adsorption layer features a mineral mixture with exceptional selectivity and stability, adsorbing both polar and less-polar mycotoxins such as AFB1, T-2 toxin, as well as FB1 with high efficiency in the gastrointestinal tract.

Complementing this, internationally deposited strains of Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus licheniformis drive biotransformation, converting toxic compounds like OTA and ZEN into less harmful metabolites.

This process not only neutralizes toxins but also contributes to gut health by promoting a balanced microbiota.

Herbal extracts, such as those containing flavolignans like silymarin, play a crucial role in hepatoprotection by:

• Scavenging free radicals
• Enhancing liver detoxification
• Restoring antioxidative enzyme function

Additionally, the yeast cell wall components, rich in β-glucans and mannan oligosaccharides, booster the immune system by stimulating T-cells, B-cells, and macrophages, ensuring robust host disease resistance.

In vivo trials have demonstrated MYCORAID’s efficacy in improving feed conversion ratios (FCR), reducing toxin residues in tissues, and sustaining poultry performance even under high contamination scenarios^29,31,32.

MYCORAID’s unique combination of adsorption, biotransformation, and immunoprotection makes it an indispensable tool for broiler and egg producers across SA, delivering both safety and economic benefits in countries with high occurrence of mycotoxins.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a pressing need for harmonized mycotoxin regulations across South American countries to address inconsistencies that compromise food safety, trade efficiency, and the implementation of effective mitigation strategies in the poultry industry.

SA’s diverse climatic conditions, further intensified by climate change, significantly drive the prevalence of mycotoxins, necessitating tailored, region-specific strategies for monitoring and control.

A key challenge is the lack of adequate laboratory infrastructure and limited access to advanced testing methods, particularly in rural areas, which emphasizes the urgent need for investment in diagnostic and monitoring capabilities.

Compounding the issue, smallholder farmers often lack awareness of preventative measures, such as proper crop storage and drying techniques, which exacerbates the risk of mycotoxin contamination.

⇰ This gap highlights the importance of education and targeted awareness campaigns to empower farmers with the knowledge needed to mitigate contamination risks effectively.

Moreover, small producers bear a disproportionate economic burden in managing mycotoxin risks due to limited resources, underscoring the need for inclusive policies and financial support mechanisms to ensure equitable access to mitigation tools and practices.

To address these challenges, the adoption of advanced mycotoxin adsorbents, including clinoptilolite-based products, and the integration of bioremediation agents such as Bacillus species, offer promising solutions.

These strategies have shown significant potential in reducing the toxic effects of mycotoxins, safeguarding poultry health, and enhancing productivity, making them vital components of a comprehensive approach to mycotoxin risk management.

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