Nano-adsorbents for mycotoxin control in aquafeed: proven efficacy, emerging potential, and associated risks

Al-Zahraa Mamdouh² and Eman Zahran¹*

¹National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), Cairo, Egypt
²Department of Aquatic Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

With the rising demand for sustainable aquafeeds incorporating plant-based ingredients, mycotoxin contamination poses significant risks to fish health, product quality, and human consumers.

Various nanomaterials, including graphene-based nanosheets, nano-clays, metal oxide nanoparticles, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and magnetic nano-adsorbents, have demonstrated promising adsorption capacities and mechanisms for mycotoxin removal, such as electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, and π–π interactions.

This review highlights advances in functionalization techniques that enhance adsorption efficiency and selectivity.

Practical applications face challenges, including:

• ⇒ Matrix effects derived from complex feed compositions
• ⇒ Limited broad-spectrum adsorption capacity
• ⇒ Nanoparticle aggregation and stability issues
• ⇒ Safety and regulatory concerns regarding toxicity and residues
• ⇒ Economic constraints related to cost and scalability

Emerging research has focused on developing multifunctional nano-adsorbents that not only detoxify mycotoxins but also support fish gut health and growth performance.

Although laboratory results are encouraging, further in vivo studies and comprehensive safety assessments are essential to enable commercial adoption in aquaculture systems.

AQUACULTURE NUTRITION AND THE EMERGING CHALLENGE OF MYCOTOXIN CONTAMINATION

Fish are a major source of vital nutrients in the human diet.

They are a significant source of protein, essential amino acids, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and most essential minerals and trace elements, particularly iodine, fluorine, and trivalent chromium, which are usually absent in other meat products (Tacon y Metian, 2013).

Rapid and massive global population growth has led to increased seafood consumption.

⇒ Therefore, increasing fishery capture has been considered necessary to fulfil the growing demand for fish (Guillen et al., 2019).

Aquaculture is one of the fastest-growing food production sectors and has been expanding to supply the population with sustainable and high-quality aquatic products.

Feeding programs in aquaculture depend mainly on commercially available high-protein aquafeeds, which promote growth and ensure high-quality products.

Approximately 40.0 % of fish produced by aquaculture require large amounts of externally provided protein-rich aquafeed (Deutsch et al., 2007).

Commercial aquafeeds are formulated from a mixture of ingredients of plant and animal origin (Oliveira y Vasconcelos, 2020).

• ⇒ Plant-based components in aquafeeds include soybean meal and other cereals (Matejova et al., 2017).
• ⇒ Fish meal and fish oil are essential marine-derived ingredients used in aquafeed formulations. They are important sources of proteins, essential amino acids, and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (Jackson, 2012).

SUSTAINABILITY CONSTRAINTS OF MARINE-DERIVED INGREDIENTS

Between 65.0 % and 75.0 % of fishmeal and fish oil are produced using whole fish, particularly small pelagic forage fish such as anchovies, mackerel, sardines, sprat, and menhaden (Oliveira y Vasconcelos, 2020).

However, the increasing demand for aquaculture production has led to a higher demand for fish meal and fish oil used in aquafeeds and to the subsequent shortage of pelagic fish and other species used in their production, which is now considered both an ecological and economic concern (Oliveira y Vasconcelos, 2020).

⇒ Therefore, plant-derived ingredients are currently used as substitutes for fish meal and fish oil.

Oilseeds, legumes, and cereal grains such as barley, canola, corn, cottonseed, peas/lupins, and wheat are:

• ⇒ The main dietary protein sources for lower trophic level fish species (tilapia, carp, and catfish).
• ⇒ The second major protein source for shrimp and European high trophic level fish species.
• (Tacon et al., 2011b)

Soy products are the most widely used plant-based ingredients as substitutes for fishmeal.

Soybean meal is the most common ingredient used as an alternative to fish meal in fish feed. It usually constitutes between 15 % and 45 % of aquafeeds for herbivorous and omnivorous fish (Tacon et al., 2011a).

MYCOTOXIN CONTAMINATION ON AQUAFEED

Mycotoxins are natural compounds produced as secondary metabolites by filamentous fungi, including Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium, which commonly infect a wide variety of foods and feedstuffs worldwide.

They can contaminate many crops, including maize, rice, nuts, wheat, soybean, sorghum, and corn, either before or during harvest, or during feed processing and storage.

Major mycotoxins include aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and ochratoxin, and their occurrence in commercial aquafeeds is a widespread problem (Gonçalves et al., 2018; Marijani et al., 2017).

• Aflatoxins (Afs) were first detected in black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) feed in the Philippines (Bautista et al., 1994).
• Afs were later detected in fish feeds from aquaculture operations in Thailand (ALTUĞ and ÖZYURT, 2003) and in commercial shrimp feed in Turkey (Bintvihok et al., 2003).
• In Thailand, shrimp and fish feed samples were contaminated with zearalenone and ochratoxin A (OTA), whereas in India, shrimp feed was contaminated with Afs (Fegan and Spring, 2007).
• Zearalenone (ZEN) has been detected in trout feed collected from two farms in northeastern Poland (Woźny et al., 2013).
• Pietsch et al. (2013) reported the presence of deoxynivalenol (DON) in feed samples for common carp (Cyprinus carpio) from central Europe, while Nácher-Mestre et al. (2015) documented the occurrence of fumonisins (FUM) and DON in feeds for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata).
• In Argentina, Afs, OTA, T-2 toxin, DON, and ZEN were detected in salmonid feeds (Greco et al., 2015).
• Feeds for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) from Kisumu (Kenya), Kigembe (Rwanda), Jinja (Uganda), and other locations were highly contaminated with AF, FUM, and DON (Marijani et al., 2017).

CONVENTIONAL DECONTAMINATION STRATEGIES: STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS

Physical and chemical techniques for mycotoxin decontamination in feedstuffs have been used for many years.

Physical methods include sorting, cleaning, high-temperature treatment, high-pressure processing, sterilization, cooking, and milling (Grenier et al., 2014; Pankaj et al., 2018).

Chemical methods involve the use of agents that reduce or convert mycotoxins into less toxic by-products through ozonation, ammoniation, or hydrogen peroxide treatment (Čolović et al., 2019).

Although these methods can reduce mycotoxin levels, they are often not environmentally friendly, may involve high operational costs, and can produce inconsistent results. They may also decrease the quality and nutritional value of food and feed (Čolović et al., 2019; Pankaj et al., 2018).

NANO-BASED ADSORBENTS AS EMERGING DETOXIFICATION TOOLS

Recently, several novel approaches have been investigated for removing mycotoxins from feedstuffs.

Nano-based particles have gained increasing attention as a potential solution to mycotoxin contamination in various feed matrices.

Nano-adsorbents are nanoscale porous materials (typically ≤ 100 nm) that can be engineered to bind mycotoxin molecules in complex matrices, including fish feed.

• ⇒ They possess large surface areas, abundant active binding sites, and high adsorption capacity.
• ⇒ They can be functionally modified (e.g., magnetic, hydrophobic, or charged surfaces) to enhance the efficient capture and adsorption of mycotoxins (Song and Qin, 2022).
• ⇒ They can remove mycotoxins by adsorption through electrostatic attraction or hydrogen bonding.

Nanoparticles with the capacity to function as mycotoxin adsorbents in aquaculture feed.

GRAPHENE-BASED NANOSHEETS

Graphene nanosheets consist of a monolayer of sp²-hybridized carbon atoms and possess significant adsorption properties due to the presence of polarized sites, either electron-rich or electron-depleted, which allow for the delocalization of π electrons (Ersan et al., 2017).

Graphene nanosheets include:

• ⇒ Graphene
• ⇒ Graphene oxide (GO)
• ⇒ Reduced graphene oxide (rGO)

Graphene oxide (GO) consists of a singleatom- thick sheet of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb lattice, providing an excellent platform for the fabrication of metal nanoparticle (NP)-based composites (NP) (Ye et al., 2016).

Either alone or incorporated into composite materials, it demonstrates strong potential for the adsorption and removal of various substances, including mycotoxins due to its hydrophobicity and large surface area (Ye et al., 2016).

Recent studies have investigated the use of graphene-based materials for the adsorption of mycotoxins.

For example, graphene oxide at 10 mg/g showed adsorption capacities of 0.045 mg/g for aflatoxin, 0.53 mg/g for zearalenone, and 1.69 mg/g for deoxynivalenol at 37 °C in crushed wheat (Horky et al., 2020).

However, GO nanosheets have several limitations that restrict their direct real-world application:

• Difficulties in recovery and reuse
• Incomplete separation from adsorbed mycotoxins by sedimentation or filtration
• Potential presence of undesirable residues in food products

To overcome these limitations, the combination of GO with magnetic NPs offers a promising solution, as the application of an external magnetic field facilitates rapid separation while requiring less energy than conventional methods (Fu et al., 2014).

In addition, the improved recovery efficiency and relatively low production cost of magnetic graphene oxide (MGO) represent significant advantages that enhance its industrial applicability.

• Ji and Xie (2020) prepared magnetic graphene oxide (MGO) and magnetic reduced graphene oxide (MrGO) through the coprecipitation of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles onto GO/rGO nanosheets to remove AFB1 from contaminated rice bran oil. Their findings showed that the MGO adsorbent removed up to 88.82 % of AFB1, indicating strong potential for practical applications.
• Abbasi Pirouz et al. (2018) developed a series of innovative adsorbents based on chitosanmodified magnetic graphene oxide (MGO-CTS), designed for the simultaneous adsorption of AFB1, OTA, and ZEN in animal feed.

GO can also be chemically modified through the introduction of additional functional groups or by grafting various polymers, such as chitosan, imidazole, poly(N-vinylcarbazole), polyaniline, and poly(allylamine hydrochloride), to increase its adsorption capacity (Bytesnikova et al., 2021).

These surface modifications can significantly improve the mycotoxin adsorption efficiency of GO.

• A functionalized graphene oxide (FGO) system modified with the amphiphilic molecule didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) was developed for the removal of ZEN from corn oil and exhibited a maximum adsorption capacity of 23.75 mg g-1 for ZEN. ZEN molecules interacted with functional groups on the FGO surface through π–π interactions and hydrogen bonding, resulting in effective chemical adsorption (Bai et al., 2018).
• GO-coated silica nanocomposites have been used as solid-phase adsorbents to optimize extraction conditions for the determination of aflatoxins in cereals using HPLC-FLD (Yu et al., 2018).

NANO-CLAY PARTICLES

Clays and clay derivatives, including montmorillonite, bentonite, zeolite, halloysite, attapulgite, and rectorite, have been used as clay mineral–based nano-adsorbents.

They are used to remove various pollutants, including heavy metals and mycotoxins, owing to their:

• Physicochemical properties
• High specific surface area
• Large cation exchange capacity and selectivity
• Surface hydrophilicity
• Surface electronegativity
• (Awad et al., 2019)

Clay-based nanoparticles have been evaluated for the removal of mycotoxins from various feed samples:

• An attapulgite nanocomposite incorporated with Fe3O4 exhibited a high capacity to eliminate AFB1 from peanut oil, achieving a removal rate of 86.82 % at a 0.3 % dosage (Ji and Xie, 2021).
• Karami-Osboo et al. (2020) reported the use of nanozeolite to reduce mycotoxin levels in barley flour. In their study, an extract of the medicinal plant Centaurea cyanus was used as both a reducing and capping agent in the green synthesis of a magnetic zeolite nanocomposite (MZNC).
• Wang et al. (2020) investigated the influence of magnetic halloysite nanotubes on adsorption performance, recovery rate, and the isotherm and kinetic parameters of cereal samples contaminated with ZEN. During fabrication, template molecules are used to create specific recognition sites in surface molecularly imprinted polymers (SPMIPs). After removal of the template, the modified structures were able to selectively recognize and adsorb ZEN.

• Zhang et al. (2020) modified nanomontmorillonite using stearyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (STAB), producing NMMT-STAB with a markedly enhanced adsorption capacity compared to unmodified NMMT in dairy cow rumen fluid. This modification resulted in 1.36-, 4.81-, and 1.92-fold increases in the reduction of AFB1, ZEN, and DON, respectively.
• Sun et al. (2020) developed a series of organomontmorillonites by modifying montmorillonite with binary mixtures of non-ionic and zwitterionic surfactants (NZMts) for the simultaneous adsorption of AFB1 and ZEN in aqueous solutions. Among the prepared materials, 1.5NZMts demonstrated the highest adsorption capacity, reaching 4.87 mg/g for AFB1 and 49.26 mg/g for ZEN.

METAL OXIDE NANOPARTICLES

Metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) are inorganic particles with surface hydroxyl groups that possess a high surface area and surface charge, enabling them to efficiently interact with various mycotoxins through electrostatic attraction, surface complexation, hydrogen bonding, and photocatalytic degradation (Prasanna et al., 2019).

Titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and iron(III) oxide (Fe₂O₃) have been widely investigated for the removal and detoxification of mycotoxins in food and feed samples.

• ZnO nanoparticles at 0.10 mg/mL completely removed 10 μg/L of AFB1 from an aqueous solution after 60 min of UV irradiation (Raesi et al., 2022).
• In a study comparing metal oxide nanoparticles with commercial antifungal feed additives, ZnO and Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles reduced the growth of Aspergillus flavus and significantly decreased aflatoxin B1 production in contaminated feed samples. These findings indicate their functional role in reducing fungal proliferation and toxin production prior to severe contamination (Nabawy et al., 2014).

In addition to aflatoxins, metal oxide nanoparticles have been investigated for the adsorption of DON and ZEN.

• ZnO nanoparticles bioproduced by Pseudomonas poae (P. poae) inhibited fungal growth, colony formation, and spore germination of Fusarium graminearum in wheat and significantly reduced DON synthesis (Ibrahim et al., 2024).
• A ZnO@mSiO2 nanocomposite decreased toxin production by A. flavus and F. graminearum in maize flour by over 64.11 % and 80.53 %, respectively. In maize kernels, DON, ZEN, AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 were all inhibited by more than 81.3 (Xu et al., 2025).

Metal oxide nanoparticles are chemically stable and mechanically robust, with multifunctional adsorption and degradation mechanisms.

However, concerns regarding nanoparticle aggregation, potential toxicity, and regulatory acceptance in feed applications remain important considerations for practical implementation.

METAL-ORGANIC FRAMEWORKS (MOFs)

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are crystalline materials composed of metal ions or metal cluster nodes connected by multidentate organic ligands through coordination bonds (Liu et al., 2021).

They exhibit high surface areas and porous architectures, which make them highly effective for functional enrichment and extraction processes, particularly in the detection of environmental pollutants (J. Li et al., 2020).

Several studies have investigated MOF-based adsorbents for the removal of mycotoxins, particularly AFB1:

• Samuel et al. (2021) reported the fabrication of aminefunctionalized Zn-based MOF crystals for the efficient removal of AFB1 from wastewater. Their findings demonstrated that AFB1 molecules were adsorbed as a monolayer onto the functional sites of NH2-Zn(BDC) (DMF) MOFs through π–π stacking interactions.
• The MOF material MIL-101(Fe) exhibited a significant adsorption capacity toward AFB1, reaching 30.58 mg/g. Surface modification of MIL-101(Fe) with chlorotrimethylsilane (TMCS) produced the hydrophobic derivative TMCS-MIL-101, which effectively removed AFB1 from peanut oil. Combined XRD characterization and computational analyses indicated that van der Waals interactions between the framework ligands and AFB1 molecules play a key role in the adsorption mechanism (Liu et al., 2022).
• Ma et al. (2021) developed a series of Cu-based MOF-derived porous materials as efficient adsorbents to eliminate AFB1 from contaminated vegetable oils. Based on the Langmuir isotherm model, AFB1 adsorption onto the Cu-BTC MOF occurred on a homogeneous surface with abundant active sites, consistent with a monolayer adsorption mechanism. Notably, the fabricated MOF material tested in oil exhibited no significant cytotoxicity, suggesting that the porous carbonaceous material derived from Cu-BTC MOF holds promise as a safe and effective adsorbent for AFB1 removal in the food industry.

Several limitations restrict the practical application of MOFs in food and feed matrices:

• ⇒ Many MOFs, particularly those with carboxylatebased linkers, exhibit poor water stability and can degrade in aqueous environments, thereby decreasing their effectiveness in contaminated feed or water
• ⇒ Their synthesis is often costly
• ⇒ Structural degradation and potential leaching of components may pose environmental and toxicological concerns
• ⇒ Limited reusability and difficulties in large-scale production remain major barriers to practical implementation
• (Marinho et al., 2025)

MAGNETIC NANO-ABSORBENTS

Magnetic nano-adsorbents consist of a magnetic core surrounded by a functional coating shell.

• ⇒ The core is typically composed of iron oxides such as magnetite (Fe3O4) or maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) and is used for the magnetic separation of mycotoxins.
• ⇒ The functional coating shell acts as a specific binding site for mycotoxins and is commonly made of silica (SiO2), graphene oxide (GO), chitosan, metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), polymers, or molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs).

These materials bind mycotoxins via hydrogen bonding, π–π stacking, electrostatic interactions, or hydrophobic interactions (Ramadan et al., 2020).

Several studies have evaluated the use of magnetic nanocomposites for the removal of mycotoxins from feeds:

• A magnetic Fe3O4/zeolite nanocomposite prepared using Centaurea cyanus extract demonstrated rapid and sensitive extraction of AFB1, AFG1, AFB2 and AFG2 from rice samples. Binding of aflatoxins ranged from 2–10 ng/g, and extraction efficiencies of 82–96 % were achieved within the first minute of contact. The limits of detection (LODs) were 0.1 and 0.02 ng g-1, and the limits of quantification (LOQs) were 0.4 and 0.08 ng g-1 for AFB1/AFG1 and AFB2/ AFG2, respectively (Karami-Osboo et al., 2020).
• Magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers formed by integrating magnetic Fe3O4 with commercial molecularly imprinted polymers were used for the selective extraction of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 from pig feeds. The nanocomposite extracted aflatoxins at concentrations between 0.2 and 3.2 ng/g, with LOQs ranging from 0.09 to 0.47 ng/g (Pérez-Álvarez et al., 2024).
• Magnetic graphene oxide nanocomposites (MGO) have been used as adsorbents for Fusarium mycotoxins in naturally contaminated palm kernel cake (PKC), achieving reductions of 69.57 %, 67.28 %, 57.40 %, and 37.17 % for DON, ZEN, HT-2, and T-2, respectively (Pirouz et al., 2017).

Magnetic nano-adsorbents exhibit rapid magnetic separation, enabling efficient recovery from complex matrices without the need for filtration or centrifugation. Their large specific surface area enhances adsorption capacity, while the tunable surface chemistry of the functional shell allows the introduction of selective binding sites for different mycotoxins.

Furthermore, many magnetic nanocomposites demonstrate good reusability after adsorption– desorption cycles, making them cost-effective and potentially sustainable (Lü et al., 2024).

However, several limitations remain:

• ⇒ Magnetic nanoparticles are prone to aggregation due to strong magnetic dipole–dipole interactions, which may reduce effective surface area and adsorption performance.
• ⇒ Their stability may be compromised under acidic conditions, potentially leading to structural degradation or leaching of iron ions from the magnetic core.
• ⇒ Regulatory and safety concerns also persist regarding their application in food and feed systems, particularly in relation to nanoparticle residues.
• ⇒ The costs associated with surface functionalization and advanced coating materials may limit large-scale industrial applications.
• (Castell et al., 2024)

PRACTICAL LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES OF NANO-ADSORBENTS IN AQUACULTURE

The matrix effect associated with the complex composition of fish feeds is a major concern, as components such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and minerals may compete with mycotoxins for available adsorption sites, thereby reducing binding efficiency.

This competitive adsorption can alter surface interactions and affect adsorption capacity (Ghobish et al., 2025).

Moreover, certain nano-adsorbents exhibit high affinity toward specific mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins, due to favorable molecular interactions (π–π stacking and hydrophobic interactions), while showing lower binding efficiency for other toxins such as DON and ZEN.

Consequently, achieving broad-spectrum adsorption remains a significant challenge in feedstuffs contaminated with multiple mycotoxins (Song y Qin, 2022).

Safety considerations are particularly important for large-scale applications.

• ⇒ Nanomaterials intended for feed use must undergo comprehensive evaluation regarding biocompatibility, potential bioaccumulation, toxicity to aquatic organisms, and environmental impact.
• ⇒ Regulatory approval may also require detailed assessment of nanoparticle stability, degradation behavior, and possible residues in edible fish tissues (Mahaye, 2025).

Current research focuses on the development of broad-spectrum nano-adsorbents capable of capturing multiple classes of mycotoxins.

Emerging approaches also aim to use nano-adsorbents as multifunctional feed additives that not only adsorb mycotoxins but also improve gut health, modulate immune responses, and enhance growth performance in fish.

Despite promising laboratory results (Fadl et al., 2020; Ghobish et al., 2025), commercial applications in aquaculture remain at an early stage.

Further in vivo investigations are required to confirm long-term safety, efficacy, and economic feasibility under practical farm conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

The application of nano-adsorbents represents a promising and innovative approach to mitigate mycotoxin contamination in aquaculture feed, thereby addressing the critical challenges associated with the increasing use of plant-based ingredients.

Various nanomaterials, including graphene-based nanosheets, nano-clays, metal oxide nanoparticles, metal–organic frameworks, and magnetic nano-adsorbents, have demonstrated significant adsorption capacities through diverse mechanisms such as electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, and π–π interactions.

Advances in functionalization techniques have further enhanced the efficiency and selectivity of mycotoxin removal. However, practical implementation in aquafeed systems remains constrained by several factors.

The complex feed matrix may interfere with adsorption efficiency due to competitive binding and many nano-adsorbents exhibit specificity toward certain mycotoxins, thereby limiting broad-spectrum efficacy.

In addition, issues such as nanoparticle aggregation, stability under variable conditions, potential toxicity, regulatory barriers, and economic feasibility present significant challenges to large-scale application.

Emerging research focused on multifunctional nanoadsorbents that combine mycotoxin detoxification with improvements in fish gut health and growth performance shows considerable potential.

To facilitate the transition from laboratory success to commercial adoption, comprehensive in vivo studies and rigorous safety evaluations are essential.

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