Nanoparticles for controlling mycotoxigenic fungi and their mycotoxins

Mohith Ram C. R., Monisha P. and M. Y. Sreenivasa

Applied Mycology Lab, Department of Studies in Microbiology, University of Mysore, Mysuru, India
*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Molds belonging to the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium contaminate a large proportion of the world’s food and feed supplies and produce toxic secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins (Deepa et al., 2016 & González-Jartín et al., 2024).

⇒They pose a serious food safety concern, as a contaminated batch of grain, nuts, or feed can introduce these compounds into the entire food chain (Dass et al., 2007 & Mateo et al., 2025).

According to global estimates, approximately one-quarter of the world’s crop production is affected by mycotoxin contamination, posing a major challenge to food security and public health (Sreenivasa et al., 2008 & Khan et al., 2024).

Different mycotoxins exert toxic effects on humans and animals.

• Aflatoxins (AF), primarily produced by Aspergillus flavus, are the most extensively studied mycotoxins because of their carcinogenicity and hepatotoxicity
• Ochratoxin A (OTA) mainly affects the kidneys
• Deoxynivalenol (DON) causes vomiting and gastrointestinal disorders.
• Zearalenone (ZEN) exhibits estrogen-like activity and disrupts reproduction..
• Fumonisins (FUM) are associated with liver and kidney damage in animals.

Because of these health effects, many countries have established regulatory limits for permissible mycotoxin concentrations in food and feed (Khan et al., 2024).

Conventional control methods, including synthetic fungicides, heating, irradiation, and chemical treatments, have several limitations (Deepa et al., 2019 & Mateo et al., 2025), such as:

• Fungal resistance
• Nutrient loss
• Chemical residues

Over the past decade, researchers have investigated nanotechnology as a potential alternative to these methods.

This review provides an overview of:

• ⇒The different types of nanoparticles
• ⇒Their mechanisms of action against mycotoxigenic fungi
• ⇒Their role in mycotoxin degradation
• ⇒Their main advantages and limitations

It also discusses future research directions and emerging trends in nanoparticle-based mycotoxin control.

NANOPARTICLES: TYPES AND KEY CHARACTERISTICS

The biological activity of nanoparticles depends on their physicochemical characteristics, including:

Two batches composed of the same material can behave differently if these characteristics vary. Moreover, the properties that make a nanoparticle effective may also render it toxic to healthy cells (Horký et al., 2018).

Therefore, researchers have devoted considerable effort to characterizing nanoparticles using techniques such as electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and zeta-potential analysis before evaluating their biological activity (Lakshmeesha et al., 2019).

NANOPARTICLES AGAINST MYCOTOXIGENIC FUNGI

Aspergillus flavus is the most extensively studied mycotoxigenic fungus because it is a major producer of aflatoxins (Al-Othman et al., 2014).

In one study, silver nanoparticles measuring 5–30 nm inhibited all tested A. flavus isolates.

⇒The strongest inhibitory effect was observed at 150 ppm, resulting in an almost complete reduction in aflatoxin B1 production.

Silver nanoparticles combined with silica achieved even better results, completely inhibiting an aflatoxigenic strain at 5 mg/ mL through the slow release of silver ion (Naqvi et al., 2023).

Aflatoxin reduction is not solely a consequence of fungal growth inhibition. For example, citrate-coated silver nanoparticles of different sizes suppressed aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus, even at very low concentrations that did not inhibit fungal growth (Mitra et al., 2019).

Similarly, green-synthesized silver nanoparticles were effective against Aspergillus ochraceus, reducing aflatoxin contamination in wheat grains and protecting animals against toxin-induced organ damage (Savi et al., 2013 & Naqvi et al., 2023).

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) are highly effective against fungi from different genera.

ZnO NPs inhibited two common postharvest fungi, Penicillium expansum, a producer of the mycotoxin patulin, and Botrytis cinerea, at concentrations above 3 mmol/L.

⇒Of the two species, P. expansum was more susceptible to the treatment.

NANOPARTICLES FOR MYCOTOXIN REMOVAL AND DEGRADATION

Controlling fungal growth alone is insufficient because mycotoxins are highly stable compounds that can persist long after fungal cells have been eliminated.

In addition to exerting antifungal activity, nanoparticles can remove or degrade pre-existing mycotoxins through adsorption, which immobilizes toxins on the particle surface, or catalytic degradation, which converts them into less toxic compounds (Horký et al., 2018 & Atanda et al., 2026).

Adsorption relies on the large, reactive surface area of nanoparticles.

Mycotoxin molecules can be retained through:

Chitosan, a natural polysaccharide rich in amino and hydroxyl groups, is one of the most widely studied materials for mycotoxin adsorption.

Nanochitosan- and clay-based binders have been used to reduce AFM1 and OTA concentrations in milk without altering its fat, protein, or lactose content, although their binding efficiencies varied (Abdelnaby et al., 2022).

In general, surface modification or the combination of different materials can enhance nanoparticle performance.

Chitosan–copper nanoparticles produced from agricultural waste have been reported to degrade the major aflatoxins by more than 97% within 72 hours under mild conditions.

⇒In this system, chitosan captures the mycotoxins, while copper facilitates their degradation (Atanda et al., 2026).

Hybrid chitosan/zinc oxide nanocomposites provide a dual function by inhibiting fungal growth and adsorbing AFB1 (Asghar et al., 2025).

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

Nanoparticles offer several advantages:

• High efficacy at relatively low concentrations.
• Ability to act through multiple mechanisms simultaneously.

• ⇒This multimodal activity may make fungi less likely to develop resistance to nanoparticles than to single-target chemical fungicides (Mateo et al., 2025).

• Ability to target fungal growth and mycotoxins simultaneously.
• The possibility of synthesis using environmentally friendly methods, engineered as magnetic nanomaterials for easy recovery, and applied without significantly altering the nutritional composition of food (Abdelnaby et al., 2022 & Amin et al., 2025).
• Microbial synthesis is a well-established method for producing diverse chemicals (Bhaskar et al., 2019) and metabolites, alongside other beneficial applications (Chennappa et al., 2017 & 2019). Consequently, bacteria and fungi serve as highly viable candidates for nanoparticle biosynthesis.

These nanomaterials also play an important role in the development of rapid and sensitive detection platforms, such as gold nanoparticle-based lateral flow assays for mycotoxin detection (Naqvi et al., 2023).

Despite these advantages, several challenges remain:

• The primary concern is nanotoxicity.

• ⇒The same physicochemical properties that make nanoparticles highly effective—their small size, high reactivity, and ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS)—can also damage healthy cells and lead to their accumulation in body tissues following prolonged exposure (Zhao et al., 2017).

• Their performance can vary depending on synthesis conditions.
• Large-scale, low-cost production remains challenging.
• Nanoparticles may aggregate during storage and lose activity over time.
• Questions concerning residues, potential allergenicity, and environmental fate have yet to be fully addressed.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Further progress in this field will largely depend on establishing standardized safety assessment protocols and clear regulatory frameworks.

Before nanoparticles can be widely adopted in food systems, well-defined toxicity evaluation methods and regulatory guidelines will be required to ensure their safe commercialization.

Another important research priority is the rational design of nanoparticles.

Because both efficacy and toxicity are strongly influenced by nanoparticle size, shape, surface charge, and surface coating, future research should focus on engineering nanoparticles that effectively suppress mycotoxin production while minimizing toxicity to human cells.

Recent studies indicate that such optimization may be achieved through careful control of their physicochemical characteristics.

Future developments are also expected to focus on multifunctional nanocomposites capable of simultaneously detecting, adsorbing, and degrading mycotoxins.

Combining these systems with green synthesis methods and artificial intelligence-assisted materials design may facilitate the development of highly efficient and sustainable nanomaterials.

CONCLUSION

Nanoparticles offer a promising and versatile strategy for controlling mycotoxigenic fungi and reducing mycotoxin contamination. They can:

• Inhibit the growth of fungi belonging to genera such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium.
• Suppress the production of major mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, and fumonisins.
• Adsorb or degrade mycotoxins already present in food and feed.

Metal, metal oxide, carbon-based, and biopolymer nanomaterials each offer distinct advantages that make them suitable for different applications in mycotoxin management.

Although current evidence supports their effectiveness, further research is required to establish their long-term safety, scalability, and regulatory acceptance before they can be widely implemented in food systems.

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